taken from Medical News Today

What are the early signs of dementia?

Dementia is a term that describes a variety of symptoms affecting a person’s cognitive functioning, including their ability to think, remember, and reason. It tends to get worse over time, so there are a few key early warning signs.

Dementia occurs when nerve cells in a person’s brain stop working. Although it typically happens in older people, it is not an inevitable part of aging. The brain’s natural deterioration happens to everyone as they grow older, but it occurs more quickly in people with dementia.

There are many different types of dementia. According to the National Institute on Aging, the most common is Alzheimer’s disease. Other types include:

• Lewy body dementia
• frontotemporal dementia
• vascular disorders
• mixed dementia, or a combination of types

There are 10 typical early signs of dementia. For a person to receive a diagnosis, they would usually experience two or more of these symptoms, and the symptoms would be severe enough to interfere with their daily life.

These early signs of dementia are:

1. A person developing dementia may have trouble remembering dates or events.

Memory loss is a common symptom of dementia.

A person with dementia may find it difficult to recall information they have recently learned, such as dates or events, or new information.

They may find they rely on friends and family or other memory aids for keeping track of things.

Most people occasionally forget things more frequently as they age. They can usually can recall them later if their memory loss is age-related and not due to dementia.

2. Difficulty planning or solving problems

A person with dementia may find it difficult to follow a plan, such as a recipe when cooking, or directions when driving.

Problem-solving may also get more challenging, such as when adding up numbers to paying bills.

3. Difficulty doing familiar tasks

A person with dementia may find it difficult to complete tasks they regularly do, such as changing settings on a television, operating a computer, making a cup of tea, or getting to a familiar location. This difficulty with familiar tasks could happen at home or work.

4. Being confused about time or place

Dementia can make it hard to judge the passing of time. People may also forget where they are at any time.

They may find it hard to understand events in the future or the past and may struggle with dates.

5. Challenges understanding visual information

Visual information can be challenging for a person with dementia. It can be hard to read, to judge distances, or work out the differences between colors.

Someone who usually drives or cycles may start to find these activities challenging.

6. Problems speaking or writing

Handwriting may become less legible as dementia progresses.

A person with dementia may find it hard to engage in conversations.

They may forget what they are saying or what somebody else has said. It can be difficult to enter a conversation.

People may also find their spelling, punctuation, and grammar get worse.

Some people’s handwriting becomes more difficult to read.

7. Misplacing things

A person with dementia may not be able to remember where they leave everyday objects, such as a remote control, important documents, cash, or their keys.

Misplacing possessions can be frustrating and may mean they accuse other people of stealing.

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8. Poor judgment or decision-making

It can be hard for someone with dementia to understand what is fair and reasonable. This may mean they pay too much for things, or become easily sure about buying things they do not need.

Some people with dementia also pay less attention to keeping themselves clean and presentable.

9. Withdrawal from socializing

A person with dementia may become uninterested in socializing with other people, whether in their home life or at work.

They may become withdrawn and not talk to others, or not pay attention when others are speaking to them. They may stop doing hobbies or sports that involve other people.

10. Changes in personality or mood

A person with dementia may experience mood swings or personality changes. For example, they may become irritable, depressed, fearful, or anxious.

They may also become more disinhibited or act inappropriately.

When to see a doctor

A person who experiences any of these symptoms or notices them in a loved one should speak to a medical professional.

According to the Alzheimer’s Association, it is a myth that cognitive functioning always gets worse as a person gets older. Signs of cognitive decline may be dementia or another illness for which doctors can provide support.

Although there is no cure for dementia yet, a doctor can help slow the progression of the disease and ease the symptoms, and so improve a person’s quality of life.

__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

MEDICAL WORDS in the news    

 VOCABULARY list with explanations

to describe – to explain something in full detail, to depict

a symptom – a sure sign of an illness or a disease

to affect – to have an effect on something, to put at risk

ability  – skill, being able to do something, capability , aptitude

reason = logic, rationality, sanity, common sense

inevitable –  unavoidable, something that cannot be avoided

aging, ageing – the process of growing old

deterioration – degradation, decay, decline, the downfall, the collapse

to occur – to happen, to occur, to emerge, to appear

vascular – : of, relating to, or affecting a channel for the conveyance of a body fluid (such as blood of an animal or sap of a plant) or a system of such channels

to interfere– to interrupt, to disrupt,  to impede, to stop, to block, to make something difficult to do

severe– serious, risky, detrimental, harmful, pernicious

memory loss – the fact of losing the ability to remember and/or memorize

to recall – to remember, to retrieve information from one’s memory

memory aid – a tool, a device or a gadget to help a person remember

to keep track of something – to pay attention in order to remember and control    things we do

due to – because of, owing to, thanks to , as a result of

challenging – difficult, tiring, puzzling , daunting

confused – puzzled, bewildered

to struggle  – to find it difficult to cope with something physically or emotionally

legible – easy to read a person’s handwriting, readable ; illegible- opp.ant.

handwriting – using one’s hand to write other than a typewriter or a computer

to progress – to continue, to proceed, to go on

to misplace – to leave an object somewhere without being able to find it easily if at all

possessions – things a person owns/ possesses , his or her belongings

judgment – assessment, evaluation

reasonable – rational, logical, sensible

a withdrawal   – introversion, becoming more introvert, distanced and not involved ;   to withdraw v.  

presentable– well presented,  clean , neat and tidy, well turned out

to socialize – to mingle, to make friends, to befriend, to get along

mood swings – changeable mood too often, volatility ( similar to temper tantrums)

fearful – scared, afraid, terrified

anxious – suffering from anxiety ,  anxiety  n.

irritable – prone to irritability, vexed, angry , exasperated

disinhibited – lacking in mental inhibition to do inappropriate things

to act – to behave, to do things, to have a certain conduct

inappropriately – in a way that is not appropriate, proper, well mannered, civil

to experience – to live through something especially unpleasant or traumatic

cognitive decline – the deterioration of a person’s mental faculties , the worsening of mental acuity

a cure – a remedy, a medicine, a health treatment to cure a disease

to improve – to make something better, to better, to enhance

prepared and submitted by angloland www.angloland.rs

The post Lesson 12 – Medical English: What are the early signs of dementia? appeared first on Svet Medicine.

Transplanting cells into livers has the potential to completely regenerate them, say scientists.

The Medical Research Council team showed severely damaged organs in mice could be restored to near-normal function.

They say the findings, published in Nature Cell Biology, could eventually help people stuck on a waiting list for a transplant.

Further tests are now taking place with human tissue.

The liver does have a remarkable ability to heal itself. Even if half of the organ is removed, it can grow back.

The team, based at the University of Edinburgh, has been investigating the regenerative potential of the liver.

Normally, the main type of cell in the liver – hepatocytes – is able to restore the organ.

But one of the researchers, Prof Stuart Forbes, said: “The hepatocytes normally divide beautifully, but eventually they give up that ability to keep dividing, they become senescent, and that is something we see in all forms of severe liver injury.”

Regeneration

So the Edinburgh team turned to a closely related group of stem cells from the biliary duct.

Injecting these cells into damaged mouse livers led to near complete regeneration.

Prof Forbes added: “The big aim would be to develop a clinically applicable cell therapy for patients with severe liver failure where transplantation is not an option.”

The team say tissue from livers unsuitable for transplant could be a source of these cells.

However, Prof Forbes said liver transplants would remain the main option for patients and encouraged people to join the donor register.

Further studies will now focus on repeating the results with human tissue.

Dr Rob Buckle, the director of science programmes at the Medical Research Council, said: “This research has the potential to revolutionise patient care by finding ways of co-opting the body’s own resources to repair or replace damaged or diseased tissue.”

___________________________________________________________________________

WORDS IN THE NEWS

to transplant –

1. to remove (a plant) from one place and plant it in another.

2.Surgery. to transfer (an organ, tissue, etc.) fromone part of the body to another or from oneperson or animal to another.

cell – a usually microscopic structure containing nuclear and cytoplasmic material enclosed by a semipermeable membrane and, in plants, a cell wall; the basic structural unit of all organisms.

Liver-a large, reddish-brown, glandular organlocated in the upper right side of the abdominal cavity, divided by fissures into five lobes and functioning in the secretion of bile and various metabolic processes.

severely damaged – seriously damaged, badly damaged, adversely affected

human tissue – an  aggregate of similar cells and cellproducts forming a definite kind of structural material with a specific function, in humans 

to remove – to cut out, to eliminate

to grow back – to be repaired, to develop after being removed

to keep dividing – to continue splitting into two or more parts

senescent – growing old, aging

stem cells –a class of undifferentiated cells that are able to differentiate into specialized cell types. Commonly, stem cells come from two main sources:

1. Embryos formed during the blastocyst phase of embryological development (embryonic stem cells) and
2. Adult tissue (adult stem cells).

Both types are generally characterized by their potency, or potential to differentiate into different cell types (such as skin, muscle, bone, etc.).

biliary duct  or a bile duct– any of a number of long tube-like structures that carrybile.

clinically applicable  – something which can be applied or implemented in hospitals or medical institutions

failure – stoppage, omission of occurrence or performance, deficiency

donor register – a list of registered future or prospective organ donors

to co-opt * to create or charge with a task or function

to repair – to mend, to fix

to replace- to substitute for something else

diseased – ill, sick, damaged, impaired, affected with disease

  taken with kind permission  from http://www.bbc.com/news/health-33610569

lesson prepared by angloland skola office@angloland.rs  angloland@sbb.rs  www.angloland.rs

The post Lesson 11 – Medical English: Cell transplant ‘regenerates’ liver appeared first on Svet Medicine.

A major cause of premature birth – where waters break too soon, triggering labour – may be caused by specific bacteria, according to research.

The findings could lead to screening and possible treatment for women at risk of early labour, says a US team.

The study, published in the journalPLOS ONE, suggests certain bacteria may lead to thinning of the membranes around the baby, causing them to tear.

Early rupture of membranes causes almost a third of all premature births.

The membranes that make up the sac that holds the baby usually break at the start of labour.

 “If we think that certain bacteria are associated with premature rupturing of the membranes, we can screen for this bacteria early in pregnancy”

Amy MurthaDuke University School of Medicine

If a mother’s waters break before the baby has reached full term, the medical term is preterm premature rupture of the membranes (PPROM).

If this happens early, before contractions start, it can – but does not always – trigger early labour.

Researchers atDuke University School of Medicinehave found high numbers of bacteria at the site where membranes rupture, which are linked with the thinning of membranes.

If the bacteria are the cause rather than the consequence of early membrane rupture, it may be possible to develop new treatments or screen for women at risk, they say.

Study author Amy Murtha, associate professor of obstetrics and gynaecology at Duke University School of Medicine, said: “For instance, if we think that certain bacteria are associated with premature rupturing of the membranes, we can screen for this bacteria early in pregnancy.

“We then might be able to treat affected women with antibiotics and reduce their risk for PPROM.

“Our research is several steps away from this, but it gives us opportunities to explore potential targeted therapeutic interventions, which we lack in obstetrics.”

Missing link

The researchers examined membrane samples in 48 women who had just given birth, including those with PPROM, those who had an early birth for other reasons, and those with babies born at full term.

The researchers found bacteria were present in all membranes, but the more bacteria present, the thinner the membranes, especially in women with PPROM.

Commenting on the study, Dr Patrick O’Brien, from the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists, said it had been known for a while that bacterial infection was responsible for PPROM in some women.

He told BBC News: “We’ve long suspected and known that bacteria are involved in a large proportion of these women. What we really need to know now is to understand the detailed mechanism of how bacteria cause the waters to break.”

Duncan Wilbur, head of communications at the UK premature baby charityBliss, added: “We welcome any research that helps us better understand the causes of preterm birth and identify those women at high risk.

“This study’s findings are really interesting and more research needs to be done to find treatments that will help prevention of premature birth.

                          taken with kind permission from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-25651684

Words in news

to trigger – to set off, to set into motion, to cause a strong reaction or response

findings – finds, discoveries, results of research , data collated

screening –a strategy used in apopulationto identify an unrecognizeddiseasein individuals withoutsignsorsymptoms. This can include individuals with pre-symptomatic or unrecognized symptomatic disease. As such, screening tests are somewhat unique in that they are performed on persons apparently in good health.

thinning – getting thinner and thinner

to tear – to break into pieces, to rip , to break, to crack, to rupture

to make up – to constitute , to compose, to build, to construct

the sac- thegestational sac(orgestation sac) is the only availableintrauterinestructure that can be used to determine if an intrauterinepregnancy(IUP) exists, until theembryois identified.

Onultrasound, it is an anechoic (dark) space surrounded by a hyperchoic (white) rim.

It issphericalin shape, and usually located in the upper uterine fundus.

full term -pregnancy- the entire duration of pregnancy

obstetrics –the branch of medicine that deals with the care of women during pregnancy, childbirth, and the recuperative period following delivery. Obstetrics(from theLatinobstare, “to stand by”) is the medical specialty dealing with the care of all women’s reproductive tracts and their children duringpregnancy(prenatal period),childbirthand thepostnatalperiod. Many obstetricians are alsogynecologists, meaning they perform in both specialties. In the United States, these physicians are commonly referred to as OB/GYNs.

gynaecology – gynaecologyorgynecologyis the medical practice dealing with the health of the female reproductive system(uterus,vagina, andovaries). Literally, outside medicine, it means “the science ofwomen“. Its counterpart isandrology, which deals with medical issues specific to the male reproductive system.

Almost all modern gynaecologists are alsoobstetricians(seeobstetrics and gynaecology). In many areas, the specialties of gynaecology and obstetrics overlap.

premature – born before the full duration of pregnancy

affected women – infected or attacked by disease

therapeutic-related to the healing of disease

membrane – the ‘cell membrane’(also known as theplasma membraneorcytoplasmic membrane) is abiological membranethat separates theinteriorof all cells from the outside environment. The cell membrane isselectively permeableto ions and organic molecules and controls the movement of substances in and out of cells.

sample- a. a portion, piece, or segment that is representative of a whole. b. an entity that is representative of a class; a specimen.

born at full term– born after 9 months of pregnancy

charity –acharitable organizationis a type ofnon-profit organization(NPO). It differs from other types of NPOs in that it centers on non-profit andphilanthropic goalsas well as social well-being (e.g.charitable,educational,religious, or other activities serving thepublic interestor common good).

The legal definition of charitable organization (and of Charity) varies according to the country and in some instances the region of the country in which the charitable organization operates. The regulation, tax treatment, and the way in which charity law affects charitable organizations also varies.

Financial figures (e.g., tax refund, revenue from fundraising, revenue from sale of goods and services or revenue from investment) are important indicators to assess the financial sustainability of a charity, especially tocharity evaluators. This information can impact a charity’s reputation with donors and societies, and thus, the charity’s financial gains.

bliss- happiness

preterm birth – premature birth of a baby

prevention –preventive healthcareorpreventive careconsists of measures taken to prevent diseases,(or injuries) rather thancuringthem ortreatingtheir symptoms. This contrasts in method withcurativeandpalliativecare, and in scope withpublic healthmethods (which work at the level of population health rather than individual health).

                         taken with kind permission from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-25651684

lesson prepared by Angloland skola |office@angloland.rs|www.angloland.rs

The post Lesson 10 – Medical English: Bacteria linked to premature birth appeared first on Svet Medicine.

Apples would give a similar boost to cardiovascular health as medicines, such as statins, yet carry none of the side-effects, the University of Oxford researchers say in the BMJ.

They base their assumptions on modelling, not direct scientific study.

Any fruit should work, but getting people to comply could be challenging.

 “It just shows how effective small changes in diet can be, and that both drugs and healthier living can make a real difference in preventing heart disease and stroke.”

More than two-thirds of adults do not eat the recommended five portions of fruit and veg a day, population surveys suggest.

And although nine in 10 of us do manage to eat at least one portion a day, Dr Adam Briggs and colleagues, from the British Heart Foundation Health Promotion Research Group at Oxford University, say we would all benefit from eating more.

By their calculations, if adults of all ages could manage to eat an extra portion of fruit or veg a day, as many as 11,000 vascular deaths could be averted each year.

NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION of an apple

• Energy: 35.4kcal
• Fat: 0.09g
• Saturated fat: 0.02g
• Monosaturates: 0.01g
• Polyunsaturates: 0.05g
• Cholesterol: 0.00mg
• Fibre: 1.39g
• Salt: 0.00g

The Victorian mantra of “an apple a day” to keep the doctor away is particularly important for the over-50s, who are at increased risk of vascular diseases, say the researchers.

They analysed the effect on the most common causes of vascular mortality – heart attacks and strokes – of prescribing either a statin a day, which lowers cholesterol, or an apple a day to people over 50.

Assuming at least seven in every 10 complied with the advice, statin drugs could save 9,400 lives and an apple a day 8,500 lives a year, they calculate.

The data their work rests on comprises a large body of medical trials and observations involving hundreds of thousands of patients.

Dr Briggs said: “The Victorians had it about right when they came up with their brilliantly clear and simple public health advice, ‘An apple a day keeps the doctor away’

“It just shows how effective small changes in diet can be, and that both drugs and healthier living can make a real difference in preventing heart disease and stroke.

“While no-one currently prescribed statins should replace them for apples, we could all benefit from simply eating more fruit.”

Dr Peter Coleman, of the Stroke Association, said everyone stood to benefit from eating a balanced diet.

“Apples have long been known as a natural source of antioxidants and chemical compounds called flavanoids, all of which are good for our health and wellbeing.

“This study shows that, as part of a healthy diet with plenty of fresh fruit and veg, a daily apple could help to reduce the risk of stroke and heart disease”.

taken with kind permission from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-25207033

lesson prepared by Angloland skola |office@angloland.rs|www.angloland.rs

Words and definitions

stroke –a  stroke is a condition in which the brain cells suddenly die because of a lack of oxygen.A stroke can be caused by an obstruction in the blood flow, or the rupture of an artery that feeds the brain. The patient may suddenly lose the ability to speak, there may be memory problems, or one side of the body can become paralyzed.¹

to boost – to improve, to make something better, to increase

side effects-  an effect, whether therapeutic or adverse, that is secondary to the one intended; although the term is predominantly employed to describeadverse effects, it can also apply to beneficial, but unintended, consequences of the use of adrug.

assumptions – assertions, claims

to comply – to harmonise, to conform to something; to obey guidelines or regulations; to agree to something

challenging –testing one’s abilities; demanding

to prevent- to stop from happening, to preclude

five portions – consumption of at least five portions of fruit and vegetables a day

to benefit – to promote or enhance well-being; to be an advantage, to help, to aid

vascular deaths- deaths from vascular diseases and heart failures

to avert – to divert and avoid

nutritional – to do with nutrition, nourishment , eating habits

composition – texture, contents in chemical or biological terms

Victorian – from the time of Queen Victoria* TheVictorian EraofBritish historywas the period ofQueen Victoria‘s reign from 20 June 1837 until her death, on 22 January 1901. It was a long period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities and national self-confidence for Britain.^[1]Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities and political concerns to the passage of theReform Act 1832. T

mantra- 1. a sacred utterance, numinous sound, or a syllable, word, phonemes, or group of words believed by some to have psychological and spiritual power. 2. a slogan, motif

at increased risk – at a much bigger risk than it would normally  be

common causes – the most frequent , the most usual

vascular mortality – death rate from vascular disease

to prescribe – to order a medicine or other treatment.

to lower – to decrease, to reduce, to minimize, to diminish

cholesterol –from theAncient Greekchole-(bile) andstereos(solid) followed by the chemicalsuffix-olfor an alcohol, is anorganicmolecule. It is asterol(ormodifiedsteroid),and an essential structural component of animalcell membranesthat is required to establish propermembrane permeabilityandfluidity. Cholesterol is thus considered within the class oflipidmolecules.

to assume – to have an idea, to have a preconceived idea , to assert, to claim

to rest on – to rely on, to depend on,  to be upheld by

to comprise – to consist of , to contain

a body of medical trials –

to come up with – to think of , to conceive , to devise  

currently – now, at present

chemical compounds- a chemical compound is a chemical substance consisting of two or more different chemically bonded chemical elements, with a fixed ratio determining the composition.

wellbeing – good health , welfare

to reduce the risk – to lower the risk, to minimize the risk

heart disease or heart failureis a serious condition caused by the heart failing to pump enough blood around the body at the right pressure. It usually occurs because the heart muscle has become too weak or stiff to work properly. If you have heart failure it does not mean that your heart is about to stop working. It means that your heart needs some support to do its job, usually in the form of medicines. Breathlessness, feeling very tired and ankle swelling are the main symptoms of heart failure. However, all of these symptoms can have other causes, only some of which are serious. The symptoms of heart failure usually develop quickly (acute heart failure), but they can also develop gradually (chronic heart failure).

taken with kind permission from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-25413939

lesson prepared by Angloland skola |office@angloland.rs|www.angloland.rs

The post Lesson 9 – Medical English: Apple-a-day call for all over-50s appeared first on Svet Medicine.

A small-scale study by researchers at the Sapienza University of Rome has raised hopes that the disease can be warded off when early symptoms appear.

More research is needed before the BCG vaccine can be trialled on MS patients.

The MS Society said the chance to take a safe and effective preventative treatment after a first MS-like attack would be a huge step forward.

MS is a disease affecting nerves in the brain and spinal cord, causing problems with muscle movement, balance and vision.

Early signs include numbness, vision difficulties or problems with balance.

• Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) is a live vaccine made up of a weakened strain ofMycobacterium bovis,a bacterium that causes tuberculosis (TB) in cattle
• The bacteria are altered so that they do not cause a TB infection, but stimulate the body’s immune system to make it resistant to the disease
• The vaccine has existed for 80 years and is one of the most widely used of all current vaccines, reaching more than 80% of newborns and infants in countries where it is part of the national childhood immunisation programme

About half of people with a first episode of symptoms go on to develop MS within two years, while 10% have no more problems.

In the study, published in the journal Neurology, Italian researchers gave 33 people who had early signs of MS an injection of BCG vaccine.

The other 40 individuals in the study were given a placebo.

After five years, 30% of those who received the placebo had not developed MS, compared with 58% of those vaccinated.

“These results are promising, but much more research needs to be done to learn more about the safety and long-term effects of this live vaccine,” said study leader Dr Giovanni Ristori.

“Doctors should not start using this vaccine to treat MS or clinically isolated syndrome.”

Dr Susan Kohlhaas, head of biomedical research at the MS Society, said it was a small but interesting study.

“It’s really encouraging to see positive results from this small trial, but they’ll need validating in larger and longer-term studies before we know if the BCG vaccination can reduce the risk of someone developing MS.

“Ultimately, the chance to take a safe and effective preventative treatment after a first MS-like attack would be a huge step forward.”

The findings add weight to a theory that exposure to infections early in life might reduce the risk of diseases such as MS by stimulating the body’s immune system.

Dr Dennis Bourdette, of Oregon Health and Science University in Portland, US, said the research suggested “BCG could prove to be a ‘safe, inexpensive, and handy‘ treatment for MS”.

He wrote in an accompanying editorial inNeurology: “The theory is that exposure to certain infections early in life might reduce the risk of these diseases by inducing the body to develop a protective immunity.”

taken with kind permission from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-25207033 

lesson prepared by Angloland skola |office@angloland.rs|www.angloland.rs

Words in the news

multiple sclerosis –also known asdisseminated sclerosisorencephalomyelitis disseminata, is aninflammatorydisease in which theinsulating coversofnerve cellsin thebrainandspinal cordare damaged. This damage disrupts the ability of parts of the nervous system to communicate, resulting in a wide range ofsignsandsymptoms

a small scale study –involving few people or things, covering or involving a small area, small in scope;especially:  small in output or operation

to ward off – to hold someone or something off; to fight someone or somethingoff, to stave off, to defend against the attack of

to be trialed – to be experimented on I a clinical trial or research

to affect –to have an influence on or effect a change in:

spinal cord –the thick, whitish cord of nerve tissue that extends from the medulla oblongata down through the spinal column and from which the spinal nerves branch off to various parts of the body.

numbness –deprived of the power to feel or move normally; benumbed

difficulties-something not easily done, accomplished, comprehended, or solved.

, a troublesome or embarrassing state of affairs, especially of financial affairs. Often used in the plural.

strain – to exert to the utmost , to apply pressure upon something

cattle – any of various chiefly domesticated mammals of the genusBos,including cows, steers, bulls, and oxen, often raised for meat and dairy products.

altered – changed, amended

resistant – impervious, showing resistance and opposition

newborns – newly born babies

infant –very youngoffspringof ahuman

to be given a placebo –a simulated or otherwise medically ineffectual treatment for a disease or other medical condition intended to deceive the recipient. Sometimes patients given a placebo treatment will have a perceived or actual improvement in a medical condition, a phenomenon commonly called theplacebo effect.

promising – favorable, beneficial, showing signs of future success.

clinically isolated syndrome –an individual’s firstneurologicalepisode, caused byinflammationordemyelinationofnerve tissue. An episode may bemonofocal, in whichsymptomspresent at a single site in thecentral nervous system, ormultifocal, in which multiple sites exhibit symptoms.

to reduce the risk – to lessen, to minimize, to diminish

to add weight – to add importance and significance to an issue or matter

exposure –an act of subjecting or an instance of being subjected to an action or an influence:

immune system – theimmune systemis a system of biological structures andprocesseswithin an organismthat protects againstdisease. To function properly, an immune system must detect a wide variety of agents, fromvirusestoparasitic worms, and distinguish them from the organism’s own healthytissue.

handy – useful

accompanying – something that accompanies or goes hand in hand with  something else

editorial –aneditorial,leading article(UK), orleader(UK) is anopinion piecewritten by the senior editorial staff or publisher of anewspaper ormagazineor any other written document.

to induce – to bring about , to cause ,to cause (someone or something)to dosomething,  to cause (something) to happen or exist

medical: to give (a pregnant woman) special medicine in order to make her give birth : to cause (labor or birth) to begin by giving special drugs to a pregnant woman

to move by persuasion or influence, to call forth or bring about by influence or stimulation

protective immunity –Inherited, acquired, or induced resistance to infection by a specific pathogen.

taken with kind permission from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-25207033

lesson prepared by Angloland skola |office@angloland.rs|www.angloland.rs

The post Lesson 8 – Medical English: TB vaccine could help prevent MS appeared first on Svet Medicine.

Viruses are infectious micro-organisms that require a living host to survive and multiply. When one enters your body, it invades and takes over cells, redirecting them to produce more of the virus.

How do our bodies defend us from viruses?

When our bodies come under attack from a viral infection they launch a sophisticated defence known as ‘the immune response‘. Our immune system is designed to recognise the cells that make up our bodies and repel any foreign invaders such as viruses.

They do this by using a huge army of defender cells which consist of different types of white blood cell. We make around a billion of them every day in our bone marrow.

HIV attacks and kills a type of immune system cell known as T lymphocytes. These T cells are crucial for killing other cells in the body that have been infected with germs.

Without T cells, other immune system cells, such as antibody-making B cells, can’t work properly.

If HIV is not treated the number of T cells drops steadily. Eventually, numbers fall to the point that the risk of infection greatly increases. This end-stage is known as AIDS.

White blood cells called macrophages destroy germs as soon as they detect them. However, if a viral infection begins to take hold we fight back using a more powerful defence of white cells called T and B lymphocytes.

Antibodies are a special protein made by B cells. They bind to a virus to stop it from replicating, and also tag viruses so that other blood cells know to destroy them.

T cells have different roles to play. Some act as guard dogs that raise the alarm when they detect invading viruses; others kill virus-infected cells directly, or help B cells to produce antibodies.

Once the virus has been cleared, a small number of these specialist B and T cells persist and retain an accurate memory of the destroyed virus.

This means our immune systems are primed to prevent another infection from the same virus, without attacking the body’s own cells by accident. This is known as ‘acquired immunity‘. Having a single infection with mumps during childhood will give you lifelong resistance, for example.

Scientists have harnessed this natural ability in order to create vaccines, which use dead or weaker strains of viruses to prime the immune system and stimulate long-term resistance without causing the actual infection.

Childhood immunisation programmes against highly infectious viruses, such as measles, are particularly important as these infections can cause serious and even fatal complications first time around.

Why do viruses come back?

Firstly, manyviruses like those that cause fluare skilled at rapidly mutating as they replicate. Each new virus has small, but often advantageous changes, in its genes and these accumulate as the virus passes from one person to another.

During this process, the virus alters its appearance and our immune memory cells struggle to recognise it, leaving the virus free to infect us once more.

This is why you can keep catching the flu – new mutated strains constantly develop, which the immune system can’t detect.

The flu virus also has the advantage of being able to infect a variety of hosts, from humans to birds to swine. The strains become very different during their transmission within animal groups. This makes them unrecognisable to the immune system and, on the rare occasion when they jump back to humans, they can spread rapidly.

Unlike the flu, colds are not caused a single type of virus but any one of hundreds of different types of virus that can infect the upper airways. These viruses don’t mutate like the flu viruses, so with each cold the immune system becomes resistant to the virus that caused it. However, people will still get recurrent colds simply because they keep coming across new viruses they haven’t had before.

Other viruses, such as the chickenpox virus, become inactive before they are destroyed by the immune system. They remain dormantin our bodies but can be reactivated in later life by physical and emotionalstress, resulting in a condition called shingles. One in 10 people who have chickenpox as children will have shingles as adults.

Another technique – one used by the herpes simplex virus which causes cold sores – is to hide from the immune system in nerve cells called neurones. When the virus is activated by hormones or stress on the neurones, it leaves itshost neurone cells intactbut travels down the nerve to the skin. Here it destroys skin cells and forms blisters on the lips which discharge the virus.

Scientists have suggested that this is an evolutionary survival tactic for the virus. It detects changes in the body which could threaten its existence, and moves to the skin causing a superficial eruption, liberating virus particles to find a new, healthy host.

Will we ever find a cure for the common cold?

Progress is being made in creating an antiviral drug that could kill multiple viruses, in the same way that antibiotics kill many different types of bacteria.

At present, antivirals are tailored to specific diseases such as HIV and hepatitis. But a team from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have created one that has successfully treated15 different viruses in lab tests on human tissue and mice.

It was created by ‘wiring together‘ two natural proteins – one that detected virus entry, and another that acted as a suicide switch that kills the infected cell.

The drugs have yet to be tested on humans. For now, the research continues.

taken with kind permission from http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/0/22028517

 lesson prepared by Angloland skola |office@angloland.rs|www.angloland.rs

Words and definitions

to cause – to bring about

common cold – the common cold is a viral infection of your upper respiratory tract — your nose and throat. A common cold is usually harmless, although it may not feel that way at the time. If it’s not a runny nose, sore throat and cough, it’s the watery eyes, sneezing and congestion — or maybe all of the above. In fact, because any one of more than 100 viruses can cause a common cold, signs and symptoms tend to vary greatly.

microorganism- an organism of microscopic or submicroscopic size, especially a bacterium or protozoan.

to defend – to fight off , to stave off , to keep off, to hold off, to keep away

Immune response -a system of biological structures andprocesseswithin anorganismthat protects againstdisease. To function properly, an immune system must detect a wide variety of agents, fromvirusestoparasitic worms, and distinguish them from the organism’s own healthytissue.

to repel  – to put off, to eliminate, to get rid of

bone marrow –the flexibletissuein the interior ofbones.. On average, bone marrow constitutes 4% of the total body mass of humans

to overwhelm-a .  to defeat completely and decisively  b.To affect deeply in mind or emotion: 3.To present with an excessive amount:

germs – microorganisms causing diseases

properly – well done, done in a proper way

antibody –also known as animmunoglobulin(Ig), is a large Y-shaped proteinproduced byB cellsthat is used by theimmune systemto identify and neutralize foreign objects such asbacteriaandviruses. The antibody recognizes a unique part of the foreign target, called anantigen

macrophages –any large phagocytic cell occurring in the blood, lymph, and connective tissue of vertebrates

to take hold – to grab, to catch, to capture

lymphocytes –type ofleukocyte(whitebloodcell) that is of fundamental importance in the immune systembecause lymphocytes are the cells that determine the specificity of the immune response to infectious microorganisms and other foreign substances. In humans lymphocytes make up 25 to 33 percent of the total number ofleukocytes. They are found in the circulationand also are concentrated in central lymphoid organs and tissues, such as the spleen,tonsils, andlymph nodes, where the initial immune response is likely to occur.

to bind – to tie together, to fasten, to secure , to confine, restrain, or restrict as if with bonds

to replicate – to duplicate, copy, reproduce, or repeat.

to tag – to label, identify, or recognize with or as if with a tag

guard dogs – a large aggressive dog trained to guard persons or property; watchdog

to raise the alarm – to alert, to warn

to detect – to find, to identify

to retain- to keep 
accurate – precise, exact

to prime – to make ready; prepare

acquired immunity – Immunity obtained either from the development of antibodies in response to exposure to an antigen, as from vaccination or an attack of an infectious disease, or from the transmission of antibodies, as from mother to foetus through the placenta or the injection of antiserum.

mumps –  a disease caused by a virus that usually spreads through saliva and can infect many parts of the body, especially the parotid salivary glands. These glands, which produce saliva for the mouth, are found toward the back of each cheek, in the area between the ear and jaw. In cases of mumps, these glands typically swell and become painful.

lifelong – while the person is alive , for ever

resistance –power or capacity to resist;especially:the inherent ability of an organism to resist harmful influences (as disease, toxic agents, or infection)

to stimulate – to motivate

to harness – to curb, to stop, to control

to prime – to make somebody or something ready, to prepare , to become prepared for future action or operation

measles – an acute, contagious viral disease, usually occurring in childhood and characterized by eruption of red spots on the skin, fever, and catarrhal symptoms. Also calledrubeola. b.black measles.

immunization programmes

first time round – for the first time something has appeared or occurred somewhere

flu – influenza

skilled at – good at , expert in , apt

to mutate –to undergo or cause to undergo mutation

mutation – a change of the DNA sequence within a gene or chromosome of an organism resulting in the creation of a new character or trait not found in the parental type.

b.The process by which such a change occurs in a chromosome, either through an alteration in the nucleotide sequence of the DNA coding for a gene or through a change in the physical arrangement of a chromosome.

advantageous – beneficial, useful , offering or producing advantage

to alter – to change

appearance – looks , the way something looks

strain- ageneticvariant or subtype of a micro-organism (e.g.virusorbacteriumorfungus). For example, a “flu strain” is a certain biological form of theinfluenzaor “flu” virus.

host- 1. one who receives or entertains guests in a social or official capacity. 2. the animal or plant on which or in which another organism lives.

swine – pig, hog

transmission – the spread of viruses from one body to another

to spread – to scatter, to disperse, to distribute, to take up a larger area or space; toexpand, be extended

the upper  airways –  theupper respiratory tractorupper airwayprimarily refers to the parts of the respiratory systemlying outside of thethorax^[1]or above the sternal angle ( nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx

resistant –opposed to something : wanting to prevent something from happening. : not affected or harmed by something

recurrent –occurring often or repeatedly.

to come across – to encounter by chance and suddenly

chickenpox virus –chickenpox causes a rash and can make a child feel generally unwell. Treatment aims to ease symptoms until the illness goes. Full recovery is usual in children. Serious complications are rare but are more likely to occur in children with a poor immune system, such as those on chemotherapy.

dormant – sleeping, inactive , not showing signs of life

physical and emotional stress

shingles –herpes zoster(or simplyzoster), commonly known asshinglesand also known aszona, is aviral diseasecharacterized by apainfulskin rash withblistersin a limited area on one side of the body (left or right), often in a stripe. The initial infection withvaricella zoster virus(VZV) causes the acute, short-lived illnesschickenpoxwhich generally occurs in children and young adults. Once an episode of chickenpox has resolved, the virus is not eliminated from the body and can go on to cause shingles—an illness with very different symptoms—often many years after the initial infection.

herpes simplex (“creeping” or “latent”) is aviral diseasefrom the herpesviridaefamily caused by bothHerpes simplex virustype 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2). Infection with the herpes virus is categorized into one of several distinct disorders based on the site of infection.Oral herpes, the visible symptoms of which are colloquially calledcold soresorfever blisters, is an infection of the face or mouth. Oral herpes is the most common form of infection.Genital herpes, known simply asherpes, is the second most common form of herpes. Other disorders such asherpetic whitlow,herpes gladiatorum,ocular herpes, cerebral herpes infectionencephalitis,Mollaret’s meningitis, neonatal herpes, and possiblyBell’s palsyare all caused by herpes simplex viruses.

cold sores-sometimes called fever blisters, are groups of small blisters on the lip and around the mouth. The skin around the blisters is often red, swollen, and sore. The blisters may break open, leak a clear fluid, and then scab over after a few days. They usually heal in several days to 2 weeks.

neurons –a neuron is a nerve cell that is the basic building block of the nervous system. Neurons are similar to other cells in the human body in a number of ways, but there is one key difference between neurons and other cells. Neurons are specialized to transmit information throughout the body.

to leave something intact – to leave untouched, pristine

blisters –  a small pocket of fluid within the upper layers of the skin, typically caused by forceful rubbing (friction), burning, freezing, chemical exposure or infection. Most blisters are filled with a clear fluid calledserumorplasma.^[1]However, blisters can be filled withblood(known asblood blisters) or withpus(if they become infected).

to discharge the virus – to release

evolutionary survival tactic – survival skills are often basic ideas and abilities that ancient humans have used for thousands of years.

at present – now, at the moment, currently

tailored – made to measure

hepatitis – amedical conditiondefined by the inflammation of the liverand characterized by the presence ofinflammatorycellsin thetissueof the organ. The name is from the Greekhepar(ἧπαρ), the root beinghepat– (ἡπατ-), meaningliver, and suffix-itis, meaning “inflammation” (c. 1727).The condition can be self-limiting (healing on its own) or can progress tofibrosis(scarring) andcirrhosis.

tissue –a part of an organism consisting of a large number of cells having a similar structure and function

successfully treated – healed and cured in medical terms

wiring together –to bind the pieces of something together with wire; to bind things together with wire or so fasten as if by wire

entry –an act of going or coming in.

research – survey, analysis , scrutiny

taken with kind permission from http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/0/22028517

lesson prepared by Angloland skola |office@angloland.rs|www.angloland.rs

The post Lesson 7 – Medical English: How does the body fight off a virus? appeared first on Svet Medicine.

Dogs with the bleeding disorder haemophilia A have been successfully treated by gene therapy, according to US scientists.

Two of three dogs given the experimental treatment remain free of severe symptoms more than two years on, they write inNature Communications.

Haemophilia A is a bleeding disorder which affects one in 10,000 men.

Gene therapy may be suitable for human treatment for bleeding disorders in 10 years, says the Haemophilia Society.

Bleeding disorders

• The two most common types of haemophilia are haemophilia A and haemophilia B, although haemophilia A accounts for most cases
• Haemophilia A is a bleeding disorder caused by deficiency of clotting factor VIII
• The vast majority of cases are inherited and in men
• Symptoms include spontaneous bleeding into joints, especially the knees, ankles and elbows
• There is no cure for haemophilia, but with treatment a person with the condition can usually have a good quality of life
• In recent decades genetically engineered clotting factor medications have been developed for bleeding problems
• These medications are given as an injection

People with haemophilia A have an error in their genetic code, which means they cannot produce a protein called Factor VIII, which helps in blood-clotting.

Researchers in the US and France studied three dogs with a disorder similar to human haemophilia A.

They used a virus to carry the normal gene for factor VIII into platelets, the blood cells involved repairing damaged blood vessels.

More than two years after the gene therapy, two of the three dogs remained free of serious internal bleeding.

Lead researcher Dr David Wilcox of the Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, said the study could ultimately improve the quality of life of patients affected by haemophilia A.

Haemophilia patients usually suffer internal bleeding several times a year and have to have regular injections of synthetic clotting factor.

We see gene therapy as a potential long-term solution for people with bleeding disorders… we would see this on a 10-year horizon as most likely being relevant to haemophilia B and then haemophilia A”  Spokesperson Haemophilia Society

“The results indicate that performing gene replacement therapy on a patient’s bone marrow cells can lead to production, storage and release of factor VIII from platelets directly at the site of an injured blood vessel to prevent uncontrolled bleeding for several years after treatment,” he told BBC News.

“This could greatly improve the quality of life for the nearly one in 10,000 individuals affected by this disorder, ultimately helping the patients to save a great deal of money in medical costs.”

The Haemophilia Society in the UK said it supported research into gene therapy.

In 2011, six patients with haemophilia B received gene therapy that allowed four of them to go without medication, raising hope for the future.

A spokesperson said: “We see gene therapy as a potential long-term solution for people with bleeding disorders; given the practicalities and the research already done, we would see this on a 10-year horizon as most likely being relevant to haemophilia B and then haemophilia A.

“Nevertheless, we are mindful that no therapy can be used until it has passed every hurdle including clinical testing, and we are very mindful of the dangers of raising false hopes amongst those affected by the various bleeding disorder conditions.”

Other researchers have carried out gene therapy on dogs with haemophilia A using a different technique, which focuses on restoring clotting factor production in the liver.

The US researchers say this would not be applicable for all patients, such as those with liver damage.

They are applying for permission to carry out a clinical trial in the US within the next two years.

                    taken with kind permission  from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-24993155

                       lesson prepared by Angloland skola |office(at)angloland.rs|www.angloland.rs

Words in the news

heamophilia –a genetic deficiency in clottingfactor VIII, which causes increased bleeding and usually affects males.

severe– serious, acute

symptom– signs of a disease or disorder

bleeding disorder – also called  coagulopathy  clotting disorderis  a condition in which the blood’s ability to clot is impaired. This condition can cause prolonged or excessive bleeding, which may occur spontaneously or following an injury or medical and dental procedures.

to affect –to have an influence on or effect a change in something

to account for – to be responsible for

deficiency – insufficiency, not being sufficient , lack, shortage

clotting –(coagulation,thrombogenesis) is the process by whichbloodformsclots so that the blood loss from a damaged vessel stops

to inherit genetically – to pass traits or characteristics from parents or ancestors to children

joint – the location at whichbonesconnect. They are constructed to allow movement (except for skull bones) and provide mechanical support, and are classified structurally and functionally

knee – the largest joint in the human body.The knee is a mobile trocho-ginglymus (a pivotal hinge joint), which permitsflexionandextension

ankle- ortalocrural region,is the region where thefootand thelegmeet

elbow –theelbow jointis thesynovialhinge joint^[2]between thehumerusin theupper armand theradiusandulnain theforearmwhich allows the hand to be moved towards and away from the body

cure – medicine, remedy, medication

genetically engineered- the direct manipulation of an organism’sgenomeusingbiotechnology. NewDNAmay be inserted in the host genome by first isolating and copying the genetic material of interest usingmolecular cloningmethods to generate a DNA sequence, or by synthesizing the DNA, and then inserting this construct into the host organism.

error – mistake ,an act, assertion, or belief that unintentionally deviates from what is correct, right, or true.

genetic code –the sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA that determines the specific amino acid sequence in the synthesis of proteins. It is the biochemical basis of heredity …

platelets-small, disk shaped clear cell fragments (i.e. cells that do not have anucleus)which are derived from fragmentation of precursormegakaryocytes.  The average lifespan of a platelet is normally just 5 to 9 days. Platelets are a natural source ofgrowth factors. They circulate in thebloodofmammalsand are involved inhemostasis, leading to the formation ofblood clots.

repair-  to restore to sound condition after damage or injury; fix

internal bleeding(also calledinternalhemorrhage) is a loss ofbloodthat occurs from thevascular systeminto abodycavity or space.It can be a seriousmedical emergencydepending on bleeding rate and location of the bleeding (e.g. brain, stomach, lungs). It can potentially causedeathandcardiac arrestif proper medical treatment is not received quickly.

ultimately – eventually, finally, in the end

to improve – to make or become better  , to raise to a more desirable or more excellent quality or condition;

gene replacement theory –the use ofDNAas a pharmaceutical agent to treat disease. It derives its name from the idea that DNA can be used to supplement or altergeneswithin an individual’scellsas a therapy to treatdisease. The most common form of gene therapy involves using DNA that encodes a functional, therapeutic gene to replace amutatedgene

bone marrow – the flexibletissuein the interior ofbones. Inhumans,red blood cellsare produced in theheads of long bonesin a process known ashematopoiesis

storage –  a place where something is stored or placed and kept for later use

 to release – to free, to set free

site – place, position, location

blood vessel – a vessel in the human or animal body in whichbloodcirculates. The vessels that carry blood away from theheartare calledarteries, and their very small branches are arterioles.

to raise hope – to believe , trust with higher level of certainty

a spokesperson-someone engaged or elected to speak on behalf of others.

mindful –careful, attentive

hurdle – barrier, obstacle , hindrance

to restore to bring back to health

liver-the largestglandin the body, a spongy mass of wedge-shaped lobes that has many metabolic and secretory functions. The liver secretesbile, a digestive fluid;

applicable – a quality of being able to be applied, implemented, administered  

to carry out– to perform

a clinical trial –sets of tests inmedical researchanddrug developmentthat generate safety andefficacydata

taken with kind permission  from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-24993155

                    lesson prepared by Angloland skola |office(at)angloland.rs|www.angloland.rs

The post Lesson 6 – Medical English: Haemophilia gene therapy solution appeared first on Svet Medicine.

Alzheimer’s breakthrough hailed as ‘turning point’

Professor Giovanna Mallucci says the hope is to arrest the process of brain cell death

The discovery of the first chemical to prevent the death of brain tissue in a neurodegenerative disease has been hailed as the “turning point” in the fight against Alzheimer’s disease.

More work is needed to develop a drug that could be taken by patients.

But scientists say a resulting medicine could treat Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, Huntington’s and other diseases.

In tests on mice, the Medical Research Council showed all brain cell death from prion disease could be prevented.

Prof Roger Morris, from King’s College London, said: “This finding, I suspect, will be judged by history as a turning point in the search for medicines to control and prevent Alzheimer’s disease.”

He told the BBC a cure for Alzheimer’s was not imminent but: “I’m very excited, it’s the first proof in any living animal that you can delay neurodegeneration.

“The world won’t change tomorrow, but this is a landmark study.”

Cells starve

The research team at the Medical Research Council Toxicology Unit, based at the University of Leicester, focused on the natural defence mechanisms built into brain cells.

When a virus hijacks a brain cell it leads to a build-up of viral proteins. Cells respond by shutting down nearly all protein production in order to halt the virus’s spread.

However, many neurodegenerative diseases involve the production of faulty or “misfolded” proteins. These activate the same defences, but with more severe consequences.

The misfolded proteins linger and the brain cells shut down protein production for so long that they eventually starve themselves to death.

This process, repeated in neurons throughout the brain, can destroy movement or memory or even kill, depending on the disease.

This process is thought to take place in many forms of neurodegeneration, so safely disrupting it could treat a wide range of diseases.

The researchers used a compound which prevented those defence mechanisms kicking in and in turn halted neurodegeneration.

Analysis

It is rare to get cautious scientists keen to describe a study in mice as a turning point in treating Alzheimer’s.

It is early science, a lot can go wrong between a drug for mice and a drug for humans and the only published data is for prion disease, not even Alzheimer’s.

So why the excitement?

It is the first time that any form of neurodegeneration has been completely halted, so it is a significant landmark. It shows that the process being targeted has serious potential.

If this can be successfully developed, which is not guaranteed, the prize would be huge.

In Parkinson’s the alpha-synuclein protein goes wrong, in Alzheimer’s it’s amyloid and tau, in Huntington’s it’s the Huntingtin protein.

But the errant protein is irrelevant here as the researchers are targeting the way a cell deals with any misfolded protein.

It means one drug could cure many diseases and that really would be something to get excited about.

The study,published in Science Translational Medicine, showed mice with prion disease developed severe memory and movement problems. They died within 12 weeks.

However, those given the compound showed no sign of brain tissue wasting away.

Lead researcher Prof Giovanna Mallucci told the BBC news website: “They were absolutely fine, it was extraordinary.

“What’s really exciting is a compound has completely prevented neurodegeneration and that’s a first.

“This isn’t the compound you would use in people, but it means we can do it and it’s a start.”

She said the compound offered a “new pathway that may well give protective drugs” and the next step was for drug companies to develop a medicine for use in humans.

‘Very dramatic’

Prof Mallucci’s lab is also testing the compound on other forms of neurodegeneration in mice but the results have not yet been published.

Side effects are an issue. The compound also acted on the pancreas, meaning the mice developed a mild form of diabetes and lost weight.

Any human drug would need to act only on the brain. However, this gives scientists and drug companies a starting point.

David Allsop, professor of neuroscience at Lancaster University described the results as “very dramatic and highly encouraging” but cautioned that more research was needed to see how the findings would apply to diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.

Dr Eric Karran, the director of research at the charity Alzheimer’s Research UK, said: “Targetinga mechanism relevant to a number of neurodegenerative diseases could yield a single drug with wide-reaching benefits, but this compound is still at an early stage.

“It will be important for these findings to be repeated and tested in models of other neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease.”

                  Taken with kind permission from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-24462699

                               prepared by Angloland skola www.angloland.rs  office @angloland.rs

WORDS IN THE NEWS

breakthrough- scientific progress, achievement, advances

to prevent – to preclude,to keep from happening, to keep from doing,

brain tissue the human cerebral cortex is a thick layer of neuraltissuethat covers most of the brain. This layer is folded in a way that increases the amount of surface that can that can fit into the volume available. The pattern of folds is similar across individuals, although there are many small variations.

neurodegenerative disease –is the umbrella term for the progressive loss of structure or function ofneurons, including death of neurons. Many neurodegenerative diseases including Parkinson’s,Alzheimer’s, andHuntington’soccur as a result of neurodegenerative processes.

to hail – to extol, to praise , to hold in high esteem

turning point – the point at which a very significant change occurs; a decisive moment.

imminent – inevitable, unavoidable

prion disease – is aninfectious agentcomposed of proteinin amisfoldedform.This is the central idea of the Prion Hypothesis, which remains debated.This would be in contrast to all other known infectious agents (virus/bacteria/fungus/parasite) which must containnucleic acids(eitherDNA,RNA, or both). The wordprion, coined in 1982 byStanley B. Prusiner, is derived from the wordsproteinandinfection.Prions are responsible for thetransmissible spongiform encephalopathiesin a variety ofmammals, includingbovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, also known as “mad cow disease”) incattle.

a landmark study – significant, very important which introduces change in the whole scientific area of study

to starve – not to eat which gradually leads to death

defense mechanisms – coping mechanisms which help the body to survive

to hijack – to seize (an airplane or other vehicle) by threat or by force, esp. for ransom or political objectives. 2.to steal (cargo) from a truck or other vehicle after forcing it to stop:

a build up – accumulation

to halt – to stop, to hinder, to block

to respond– to react  

faulty – flawed, defective, deficient, erroneous

misfolded proteins- Failure to fold into native structure generally produces inactive proteins, but in some instances misfolded proteins have modified or toxic functionality. Several neurodegenerativeand otherdiseasesare believed to result from the accumulation ofamyloidfibrils formed bymisfoldedproteins.Manyallergiesare caused by incorrect folding of some proteins, for the immune system does not produce antibodies for certain protein structures

severe – serious , not to be disregarded or ignored

to linger – to last for a long period time,to remain feebly alive for some time before dying. to persist

eventually – after a while, after some time, at some point in future

neurons- also known as aneuroneor nerve cell) is anelectricallyexcitablecellthat processes and transmits information through electrical and chemical signals

to  disrupt –to cause (something) to be unable to continue in the normal way : to interrupt the normal progress or activity of (something)

a compound –a combination of two or more elements or parts.

to kick in – to start, to appear, to occur, to become operative, to take effect

in turn- in the appropriate point in the series or order; when one’s turn comes.

keen – enthusiastic , interested

to waste away –to use something up wastefully; to dissipate something, to wither , to dwindle away.

a new pathway – a new venue , a new way forward

side effects -an effect, whether therapeutic or adverse, that is secondary to the one intended; although the term is predominantly employed to describeadverse effects, it can also apply to beneficial, but unintended, consequences of the use of adrug

a mild form – not a severe form , not a serious form

encouraging –promising , auspicious , supportive

to caution – to warn , to advise or urge to take heed,   take care or  to be attentive

to target – to aim, to set a target, to prime

to yield – to produce or provide (something, such as a plant or crop). : to produce (something) as a result of time, effort, or work

wide reaching benefits – far reaching effects, favorable, conducive, helpful, contributory

                       taken with kind permission from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-24462699

                                            prepared by Angloland skola www.angloland.rs 
                                                                                        office @angloland.rs

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‘DNA robot’ targets cancer cells

Scientists have developed and tested a “DNA robot” that delivers payloads such as drug molecules to specific cells.

The container was made using a method called “DNA origami“, in which long DNA chains are folded in a prescribed way.

Then, so-called aptamers – which can recognise specific cell types – were used to lock the barrel-shaped robot.

In lab testsdescribed in Science, the locks opened on contact with cancer cell proteins, releasing antibodies that halted the cells’ growth.

The method could find wide use in biological applications, where this kind of “specificity” is highly prized.

Lead author of the research, Shawn Douglas of the Wyss Institute at Harvard University, said the result brings together several recent research strands.

“We’ve been working on figuring out how to build different shapes using DNA over the past several years, and other researchers have used antibodies as therapeutics, in order to manipulate cell signalling, and yet others have demonstrated that aptamers can be used to target cancer cell types,” Dr Douglas told BBC News.

“The novel part is really integrating all those different pieces and putting them together in a single device that works.”

In essence, the approach co-opts a number of strategies of our immune systems, with the robots playing the role of white blood cells that hunt down problematic cells and destroy them.

The team tested the robots using several cultures of cancer cells including lymphoma and leukemia, with corresponding payloads of antibodies.

Because DNA is found in nearly all of our cells, Dr Douglas said the robots posed fewer problems of toxicity than many materials would have.

Scientists have already discovered a large number of different aptamers that can “recognise” proteins corresponding to different diseases, so the approach could in principle be adapted to a wide range of applications.

Dr Douglas said that there was still much optimisation to be done on the robots; for now the team will create a great many of them to be tested in an animal model.

taken with kind permission from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-17058066

                             prepared by Angloland skola www.angloland.rs 

WORDS IN THE NEWS

to deliver – to carry to a particular place in a human body

payloads-the carrying capacity of an aircraft orspace ship, includingcargo, munitions, scientific instruments or experiments, extra fuel etc 2. a metaphor of the same thing happening in the body

container- an item used to contain, store, and transport products  practical examples including jars, tubes, barrels, glasses etc

origami –  the traditional Japaneseartof paper folding, here used as a metaphor of the same thing happening in our body

DNA- a molecule that encodes the geneticinstructions used in the development and functioning of all known livingorganismsand manyviruses. DNA is anucleic acid; alongsideproteinsandcarbohydrates, nucleic acids compose the three majormacromoleculesessential for all known forms oflife.

chain –  a series of connectedlinkswhich are typically made of metal. A chain may consist of two or more links

to fold – to make compact by doubling or bending over parts:

to prescribe- to order the use of (a medicine or other treatment).

to lock – to shut or make secure with or as if with locks:

barrel shaped- having the general shape of a barrel, circular,round shape

a lab – short for a laboratory, a room or building with special equipment for doing scientific experiments and tests

to describe- to convey an idea or impression of; characterize, to represent pictorially; depict

to release– to set free, to free , to unfasten or let go of something caught or held fast.

antibodies- a Y-shaped protein on the surface of B cells that is secreted into the blood or lymph in response to an antigenic stimulus, such as a bacterium, virus, parasite, or transplanted organ, and that neutralizes the antigen by binding specifically to it; an immunoglobulin.

to halt- to stop , to block , to impede

growth – full development, maturity, process of growing

application– implementation, use , usage

highly prized – valuable, precious, invaluable, cherished

strand – a single filament, such as a fiber or thread, of a woven or braided material 2. something that is plaited or twisted as a ropelike length such as DNA strands

to figure out – to work out, to think through

therapeutics- of or relating to the medical treatment of a disease or condition

to target – to aim, to have a goal, to set an objective

cell –thecellis the basic structural, functional and biological unit of all knownlivingorganisms. Cells are the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and are often called the “building blocks of life”.

device – tool, machine, apparatus

to co-opt- to make someone amemberthrough thechoiceof thepresentmembers:

immune – resistant , not susceptible to

to hunt down – to pursue, to chase , totrytofindeverymemberofagroup

lymphoma –a type of cancer that begins in immune system cells. Includes information on the symptoms, causes and treatments.

leukemia–leukemia(American English) or leukaemia(British English) is a type ofcancerof thebloodorbone marrowcharacterized by an abnormal increase of immaturewhite blood cellscalled “blasts“.

to pose – to place (a model, for example) in a specific position to pose problems – to cause, to bring about , to wreak

to discover– to uncover, to find , to find out, to learn

disease – illness, sickness,  malady, disorder, imbalance in one’s body

approach – method, technique

to recognize-detect with the senses, to discern, to make out

to adapt – to modify, to change, to alter, to introduce alterations in order to improve the technique

animal model – a living, non-human animal used during the research and investigation of humandisease, for the purpose of better understanding the disease without the added risk of harming an actual human being during the process.

     prepared by Angloland skolawww.angloland.rs

taken with kind permission from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-17058066

prepared by Angloland skola www.angloland.rs office @ angloland.rs

The post Lesson 3 – Medical English: ‘DNA robot’ targets cancer cells appeared first on Svet Medicine.